HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK OF EGYPT

Beginnings of Civilization

Ongoing excavation in Egypt continually reshapes the views of scholars about the origins of Egyptian civilization. In the late 20th century archaeologists discovered evidence of human habitation before 8000 bc in an area in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the border with Sudan. Nomadic peoples may have been attracted to that area because of the hospitable climate and environment. Now exceptionally dry, that area once had grassy plains and temporary lakes that resulted from seasonal rains. The people who settled there must have realized the benefits of a more sedentary life. Scientific analysis of the remains of their culture indicates that by 6000 bc they were herding cattle and constructing large buildings.

The descendants of these people may well have begun Egyptian civilization in the Nile Valley. About 2,000 years later, when the climate changed and the southwestern area became more arid, it is possible that they chose to migrate eastward to the Nile. Some of the distinctive characteristics of their society, such the structures they built and the emphasis they placed on cattle, support this theory. By 4000 bc there were settlements in Upper Egypt, at locations such as Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen), Naqada, and Abydos.

Such a theory, however, explains only part of the picture of the early Egyptian civilization. A culture known as Badarian is represented as early as 5000 bc in Upper Egyptian settlements. Moreover, in Lower Egypt, Neolithic settlements in the Al Fayyūm area date from more than 1,000 years earlier. Several sites in that area show evidence of agriculture by around 5000 bc. Merimde, at the Nile Delta’s western border, may have been almost as old, and a settlement at Buto appears to date from around 4500 bc. The style and decoration of the pottery found at these sites differ from those of pottery found in Upper Egypt. The northern type eventually fell out of use. Other differences between the peoples in Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt include the nature of their architecture and the arrangements for burial of the dead, the latter perhaps signifying differing religious beliefs.

Unification and Early Dynastic Period

By 3500 bc, the settlement of Hierakonpolis, located on the west bank of the Nile between Luxor and Aswān, had become a central site of Predynastic culture—that is, the culture that existed before the time of the first Egyptian dynasties, or families of rulers. Hierakonpolis soon became a large and important administrative and economic center. Its religious rituals took place in a structure that is now seen as a primitive form of later Egyptian temples. A large brick tomb, constructed underground, apparently was the burial site of an early local ruler. Some of its decorations and images, such as a scene of the ruler smiting his enemies, are the same as those used in the times of the Egyptian kings. Many elements of the culture at Hierakonpolis, including the division into social classes, were typical of other settlements along the Nile. The archaeological evidence makes it clear that the culture of Upper Egypt, not that developing in Lower Egypt, was exerting influence and perhaps some control over an expanding geographic area.

It is possible that a center such as Hierakonpolis or Abydos, also in Upper Egypt, began to exert control over other settlements and that the unification of ancient Egypt was in reality the gradual growth of one center’s influence. Several king lists, or lists of rulers, some of which were prepared after 1550 bc and are quite complete, as well as histories dating to the Classical Age (500-323 bc), indicate that a ruler named Menes was Egypt’s first monarch. He reigned around 3100 bc. However, some of these documents refer to earlier rulers or even to a series of demigods (mythical beings who were partly divine and partly human). This information, as well as the archaeological evidence, implies that rival small kingdoms existed in the late Predynastic period, just before 3000 bc. Eventually one of their rulers established control over Upper Egypt and then perhaps became powerful enough to exert dominance over both the north and the south.

No one knows which, if any, of the rulers whose names are preserved from this period can be identified with Menes. Perhaps it is Aha or Narmer, whose names are recorded on some of the oldest artifacts. An image of Narmer appears on his Palette, a large ceremonial slate slab that dates to around 3100 bc and was found at Hierakonpolis. On it Narmer wears two crowns: on one side, the white crown of Upper Egypt; on the other side, the red crown of Lower Egypt. He is the first individual to be depicted with the royal headgear of both Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Other insignia and images later associated with the Egyptian monarch also appear on the palette, and Narmer is shown triumphant over enemies, including, in a symbolic manner, the delta. The scene on the palette is sometimes interpreted as ritual imagery, but it may have some historical truth. Excavations in the late 20th century at the Upper Egyptian site of Abydos, where the early kings were buried, may provide some support for the historical interpretation. A small ivory label found in the tomb of Narmer has a carved scene that appears also to represent that king’s victory over the delta. Moreover, the same expedition uncovered a structure dating from around 3250 bc. In that structure were found a scepter, wine jars from the nearby land of Canaan, and more labels, some of which were records of products from the delta. This material supports the idea that Upper Egypt came to dominate Lower Egypt even earlier than 3100 bc and controlled trade with the east.

The Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived in the 3rd century bc, recorded the royal history by organizing the country’s rulers into 30 dynasties, roughly corresponding to families. Some Egyptologists (people who study ancient Egypt) now suggest altering his list of dynasties by adding at the beginning a Dynasty 0, which may have lasted about 150 years, from about 3100 to about 2920 bc. During this period, Egyptian unification appears to have taken place, the structure of the Egyptian state seems to have been formed, and writing first appeared. The 1st and 2nd dynasties, which cover a time span of about 300 years, from around 2920 to around 2650 bc, brought the further development of a complex society, the rise of the state, and Egypt’s emergence as a power in the ancient world.

Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period

Fairly early, perhaps during Dynasty 0, the administrative center of Egypt shifted to Memphis, which is located just below the southern tip of the delta. It is not known when Memphis was founded. Memphis was well positioned to be the seat of government of the now unified land. The royal cemetery continued to be located at Abydos, in the south. The last ruler of the 2nd Dynasty, Khasekhemwy, was responsible for the construction of the last royal tomb of this period there. This ruler, who also built a monument at Hierakonpolis, may have constructed a funerary monument at Şaqqārah (Sakkara) as well, thus paving the way for the establishment of the royal cemetery at that northern location. Şaqqārah was to serve as the royal cemetery for much of the Old Kingdom, a period that some scholars believe began with the 3rd Dynasty (about 2649-2575 bc) and others believe began with the 4th Dynasty (about 2575-2467 bc). The Old Kingdom lasted until around 2134 bc and was followed by the First Intermediate Period.

The size of the funerary monuments of Egypt’s royalty still impresses visitors today. These huge burial complexes provide a wealth of information about the society and culture of the people who produced them. Imhotep, the architect for Djoser, second king of the 3rd Dynasty, constructed what appears to be the world’s first monumental stone building for the eternal resting place of a king. Djoser’s Step Pyramid at Şaqqārah is perhaps one of the earliest in a series of burial complexes that culminated in the pyramids at Giza, which date to the 4th Dynasty. The largest of these pyramids, known as the Great Pyramid, was built for King Khufu, the second king of the 4th Dynasty. These construction projects required a huge workforce of several hundred thousand laborers over a period of many years. The successful completion of the pyramids depended on a stable and well-developed economy, a well-established administrative bureaucracy, and immense public support. Moreover, Egypt had to be at peace with its closest foreign neighbors to provide the necessary concentration for this work. Unskilled workers toiled on the projects during the months of the Nile flood, when they could not farm, but craftspeople, artisans, stonemasons, managers, and others worked year-round. Devotion on the part of all the people to the king and his burial project was an important element in the success of the project. The royal office was considered divine, and the ruling king was believed to be a god on Earth, a mediator between humankind and the deities. Working for this god and securing his place among the divinities for all eternity could be interpreted as an expression of the religious devotion of the people.

From the end of the 5th Dynasty in about 2323 bc, the interiors of the pyramids contained texts carved on the walls. This collection of hymns, spells, instructions on how to act in front of the gods, and rituals, now called the Pyramid Texts, is the oldest body of religious literature yet discovered. As time went on, the size and the quality of pyramid construction diminished, in large part as a result of financial strain on the treasury. In addition, the nation had to deal with hostile neighbors, and a change in climate apparently caused serious droughts, references to which are found in texts and scenes.

By the end of the 6th Dynasty in about 2150 bc, the chiefs of the provincial areas, or nomes, were becoming increasingly powerful. Eventually the chiefs, called nomarchs, established hereditary offices and became local rulers, thus paving the way for internal rivalries and hastening the breakdown of the central administration. The First Intermediate Period ensued. It lasted from about 2134 to about 2040 bc and included the next several dynasties. During this period the nomarchs of Herakleopolis, in the northern part of Upper Egypt, rose to power. However, another rising power, based in the south at Thebes, challenged their authority and succeeded in reuniting the land.

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period

In around 2040 bc, Nebhepetre-Mentuhotep, the ruler based at Thebes, defeated the nomarch of Herakleopolis and once more united the land under central authority. This reign marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, which lasted until about 1640 bc. Nebhepetre-Mentuhotep established the 11th Dynasty and governed from Thebes, as did his two successors. The vizier, or chief government minister, under the last ruler came to the throne as Amenemhet I in around 1991 bc, establishing the 12th Dynasty. For political, economic, and strategic reasons, he moved the seat of his administration to a site near Memphis that he called Itjtawy, or “The Seizer of the Two Lands,” thus identifying it with his royal role. However, he continued the Theban emphasis on the deity Amon (Amun), a god of Theban origin who had risen to prominence in the religion and was now worshiped throughout Egypt. Amenemhet I built a fortress in the delta to guard against incursions from the east. He built similar structures in Nubia, a land to the south over which he was able to extend Egypt’s control. The independent nomarchs retained their status but recognized the central government under the king. “The Story of Sinuhe,” which was written during the Middle Kingdom, purportedly documents the travels of an Egyptian nobleman who apparently had to flee the country. It also implies that trouble existed within the palace to the extent that perhaps Amenemhet I was assassinated. Amenemhet’s successors managed to continue to control Nubia and maintained diplomatic relations with powers in Asia.

Amenemhet I began the practice of making his son a coregent, or joint ruler. As a result, his son, Senwosret I, who had become coregent in about 1971 bc, made a smooth transition to the throne in about 1962 bc. Literature and art flourished during this period, perhaps in part because of the relative peace and order that the kings of the 12th Dynasty maintained. Toward the end of the dynasty, Senwosret III finally completed the gradual process of bringing the once independent families of the nomarchs totally under royal control. The last ruler of the dynasty, Sobekneferu, was one of the few women to rule as king. During the 12th Dynasty the royal burial complexes were modeled on those of the Old Kingdom in concept, if not scale and precision. But they were no longer located at either Giza or Şaqqārah. Instead, they were situated farther south at sites such as Dahshur, Mazghuna, and Lisht.

The 13th Dynasty lasted about 150 years, beginning around 1783 bc. The transition seems to have been smooth, but the large number of recorded rulers, about 70, most of whom had brief reigns, indicates that there were problems. It may be that the bureaucracy that had served the 12th Dynasty so well became the source of rival royal families that could not sustain central power. Eventually the fortresses at the borders could not be maintained, and Nubia overtook the fortresses in the south. Immigrants from the Middle East began to occupy areas of the Nile Delta after 1800 bc. A rival dynasty, the 14th, established itself in the western delta.

The Second Intermediate Period began in around 1640 bc with the establishment of yet another competing dynasty, the 15th. That dynasty was not of Egyptian origin. The Egyptians referred to the Semitic peoples from Asia who established the dynasty as Heka-khasut, meaning “Rulers of Foreign Lands.” These peoples are often known as Hyksos, the Greek term based on that Egyptian phrase. The 15th Dynasty rapidly became dominant, eclipsing the other two, but another rival and related dynasty, the 16th, emerged at the same time. The Hyksos controlled the north from their delta capital of Avaris. They soon made a strategic alliance with the kingdom of Kush in Nubia. The 17th Dynasty, centered in Thebes, was a rival Egyptian line of kings. Eventually the Egyptians rose up to expel the foreigners. The last two rulers of the 17th Dynasty, Seqenenre-Tao and Kamose, paved the way for Kamose’s brother Ahmose to triumph over the Hyksos and their Nubian allies, thus ushering in a new dynasty—the 18th—and the New Kingdom.

New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Late Period

The first king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose I, completed the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, which his brother Kamose had begun. Once again, the south united a fractured land, giving rise to the New Kingdom (about 1550-1070 bc). During Ahmose’s reign, which lasted from about 1550 to 1525 bc, the central government was reestablished, the economy improved, and Egypt’s borders were extended to the south and east. His reign set the stage for the continuing expansionist activities of the kings who followed. During the 18th Dynasty, Egyptians began using the term pharaoh (literally “great house,” a reference to the palace) to refer to their king. At its zenith, Egypt under the 18th Dynasty controlled an area that extended south into what is now Sudan and east into the Middle East. Much of this imperial expansion is credited to Thutmose III, the dynasty’s fifth king, who extended Egyptian control farther than had any other ruler. Thutmose III began his reign as a coregent in 1479 bc but ruled alone after the death of Hatshepsut, his stepmother, who ruled from 1473 to 1458 bc. As a daughter of a pharaoh (Thutmose I) and the wife of one (Thutmose II), Hatshepsut took full control of the throne as the ruling pharaoh during her reign. The relationship between her and Thutmose III apparently was one of mutual coexistence. However, late in his reign as sole king, Thutmose III began removing Hatshepsut’s name and images from all painted or carved surfaces, thus expunging her memory for posterity.

Amenhotep III, the ninth king of the 18th Dynasty, had a long and fairly peaceful reign of almost 40 years (1391-1353 bc). It was marked by unprecedented wealth, cultural creativity, internal strength, and prominence in the ancient world. The king built a magnificent pleasure palace at Thebes, constructed and decorated huge temples throughout the land, and encouraged a flowering of the arts. The influence and power of the priesthood of Amun also increased in Egypt at this time, but the stature of the ruler remained supreme. In fact, Amenhotep III emphasized his own divinity with a focus on divine birth, as seen in reliefs on the walls of Luxor Temple (portions of which he built) at Thebes and in statues bearing his divine name.

Amenhotep IV, the son and successor of Amenhotep III, reigned for less than 20 years (1353-1335 bc). However, his reign represented a focal point in history. He introduced the concept of a single supreme deity, Aton (Aten), the disk of the sun, radically changing the belief systems that had been in place in Egypt for more than 1,000 years. The somewhat monotheistic religion that he developed was the first yet known. In addition, there are indications that the new religion focused even more on the divinity of the king than ever before. Along with the religious changes came modifications in other areas, such as art, language, and architecture. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaton (“The one who is beneficial to Aton”). He abandoned Thebes and built a new capital at Akhetaton, between Thebes and Memphis. The new capital had innovative plans and structures. For example, temples had no roofs, to let the sunlight in. The art used to decorate its walls displayed a more natural style, and texts composed there used a unique hybrid grammar. Akhenaton's revolution, sometimes known as the Amarna period (after the site of modern excavations of Akhetaton), was short-lived, however, and his successors quickly restored the traditional beliefs. Tutankhamun, who some scholars think may have been the king’s son by a minor wife, married the princess Ankhesenamun and succeeded to the throne. He is known to history not so much for reestablishing order after this chaotic period as for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, filled with magnificent treasures.

The last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Horemheb, was a general under his predecessors. He reigned from 1319 to 1307 bc and set the precedent for the military pharaohs who ruled during the 19th Dynasty, which lasted from 1307 to 1196 bc. The ability to command troops became critical for Egypt’s survival, since rival powers in Asia and elsewhere created difficulties in the coming years. Ramses II, the third king of the 19th Dynasty, ruled for about 67 years, from 1290 to 1224 bc. He battled the Hittites from Asia Minor. The conflict, which at best was a draw, resulted in the first recorded peace treaty. Ramses III, of the 20th Dynasty, was the last of the military pharaohs. He ruled from 1194 to 1163 bc. He had to contend with incursions by both the Libyans from the west and invaders from the Aegean region, known as the Sea Peoples. The remaining kings of the 20th Dynasty were less able to maintain Egypt’s place in the ancient world. During their reigns, as well as those of the kings of the 21st Dynasty, Egypt’s position was eclipsed.

During this period of decline, internal problems arose in the form of a struggle for power between the pharaoh and the priesthood. By the beginning of the 21st Dynasty in 1070 bc, Egypt was in another period of transition, the Third Intermediate Period, which lasted until 712 bc. Rival centers were established. Smendes, the first king of the 21st Dynasty, ruled only in the north near Memphis, while a line of high priests at Thebes controlled the south. The 22nd Dynasty (945-712 bc), centered at Bubastis in the western delta, clearly reflected an earlier Libyan presence in Egypt. Its first king, Sheshonk I, who ruled from 945 to 924 bc, even bore the title of Great Chief of the Meshwesh Libyans. Sheshonk I and his successors were able to reunite the country internally, but rival factions arose again with the 23rd Dynasty (828-725 bc). At the same time, the kingdom of Kush in Nubia had been gaining strength, wealth, and power. Soon it controlled much of Egypt, and the Kushites established the 25th Dynasty (770-657 bc). In the north, the 24th Dynasty (724-712 bc) ruled at Sais in the western delta, but it survived for only 12 years.

War with the Assyrians brought about the end of Nubian domination (see Assyria). In the 7th century bc, Psamtik I, ruling at first from Sais, reunited the land in 664 bc, ushering in the 26th Dynasty and the Late Period. His reign and those of his successors brought a revival of the traditions of the past and the recapturing of some of Egypt’s former reputation. Unfortunately, the respite lasted only a short time, for in 525 bc the Persians occupied the country (see Persia). The Persian kings were regarded as the 27th Dynasty. The Egyptians were able to regain control in 404 bc, but their last native dynasties ruled under conditions of internal discord and continual external conflicts. The Persians regained control of Egypt in 343 bc. Then, just 11 years later, in 332 bc, Macedonian king Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and annexed it to his Hellenistic empire. When he died in 323 bc, his friend and general Ptolemy became satrap, or governor, of Egypt. In 305 bc he took the title of king of Egypt, thus founding the Ptolemaic dynasty of pharaohs. This line of Hellenistic rulers held power for almost 300 years. Cleopatra VII, the last of them, committed suicide after the Romans defeated her forces at the Battle of Actium in 31 bc. The next year, Egypt was made part of the Roman Empire.