WORLD WIDE WEB

I

INTRODUCTION

World Wide Web (WWW), computer-based network of information resources that combines text and multimedia. The information on the World Wide Web can be accessed and searched through the Internet, a global computer network. The World Wide Web is often referred to simply as “the Web.” See also Internet, Network.

The Web started to become a popular resource after 1993 when the first widely distributed browser provided a convenient way to access a variety of information on the Internet. The Web uses multimedia, which means that information can be displayed in a wide variety of formats. Users can read text, view pictures, watch animation, listen to sounds, and even explore interactive virtual environments on the Web. A user can move seamlessly from a document or Web page stored on the computer to a document or Web page stored on another computer.

The Web offers a place where companies, universities and other institutions, and individuals can display information about their products, services, facilities, or research, or their private lives. Only a small percentage of information on the Web is restricted to subscribers or other authorized users. The majority of Web pages are available to anyone who can access a computer that connects to the Internet. The Web has become a marketplace for many companies selling products or services, and a forum for people to exchange opinions and information. Museums, libraries, government agencies, and schools post information on the Web to make it available to others.

II

A WEB OF COMPUTERS

All communication on the Web is carried out among a set of computers that are interconnected by a computer network. Web technology can be used across an intranet (a network within a company or organization) or across the global Internet. As with all communications among computers, computers that comprise the Web employ two types of software: client and server (see Client/Server Architecture). To make information available, a computer runs a server program. To obtain and display information from a server, a computer user runs a client program. The client contacts a server to request information; the server responds by sending a copy of the requested information. To ensure that the exchange is meaningful, the client and server programs must follow a communication protocol, a set of rules that the two programs use to talk to one another. Like a language, a protocol specifies both the form and meaning of each possible message.

In principle, any computer can run a client or a server. In practice, however, large, powerful computers are usually chosen to run server software, and small personal computers (PCs) are sufficient to run client software. Powerful computers are chosen for server software because they must be able to handle requests for information from millions of people and do so quickly so that users who request information from the server will not experience long delays. PCs, however, are used by a single person to request a Web page. After a user makes a request, the user waits for the information to be displayed. Thus, the client program running on a user's computer only needs to handle one activity at a time. A server, however, must handle simultaneous requests from many clients, possibly millions.

The difference between the Web and the Internet is similar to the difference between a trucking service and a highway system. The Internet corresponds to a highway that allows traffic to flow between computers, and the Web corresponds to a service that uses the highway to move information from one computer to another. Confusion about the difference between the Web and the Internet has arisen because the Web has become extremely popular and currently accounts for the majority of Internet traffic. However, other services also use the Internet to carry their traffic. For example, the Internet's electronic mail service permits users to send and receive textual messages, and the file transfer service allows a user to transfer a copy of a file from one computer to another.

Although many services use the Internet to carry data from one computer to another, each service follows a separate set of rules that define the messages used in the exchange. The Web uses the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), electronic mail uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and file transfer uses the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). The application programs that users run to access the Internet often blur the distinction among these services. For example, an application program that can send e-mail also allows a user to transfer the contents of a file, and an application program used to access the Web also allows the user to process e-mail.

III

HOW THE WEB WORKS

To access the Web, a user must have a computer connected to the Internet and appropriate software. The connection between the user's computer and the Internet can consist of a permanent, dedicated connection or a temporary, dial-up connection. A dial-up connection uses a modem to send data over the telephone system to another modem. It offers the lowest cost but requires the user to wait for the connection to be established each time the modem is used. A permanent connection uses a technology such as Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL, also known as DSL), a cable modem, or a dedicated leased circuit. It remains in place and is ready to use at all times. Permanent Internet connections cost more but offer higher capacity—that is, they can send more data at a faster speed.

Two pieces of software are needed to access the Web: (1) basic communication software that a computer uses to transfer data across the Internet and (2) a Web application program known as a browser that can contact a Web site to obtain and display information. Basic communication software, which is usually built into the computer's operating system, allows the computer to interact with the Internet. The software follows a set of protocol standards that are collectively known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Because it is built into the computer's operating system, TCP/IP software remains hidden from users. The software is invoked automatically by application programs that use the Internet.

The second piece of software needed for Web access consists of an application program known as a Web browser. Unlike basic communication software, a browser is directly visible to the user. To access the Web, the user must invoke the browser and enter a request. The browser then acts as a client. The browser contacts a Web server, obtains the requested information, and displays the information for the user.

Information on the Web is divided into pages, each of which is assigned a short identification string that is known as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A URL encodes three pieces of information: the protocol a browser should use to obtain the item, the name of a computer on which the item is located, including its domain name, and the name of the item. The domain name indicates whether the site is operated by a commercial or nonprofit business. For example, .com is a commercial site whereas .org is a nonprofit site. Many other domain names exist, including .edu for Web sites established by educational institutions.

In 2001 many other unique domain names were created. They comprised .info for informational sites, .biz for businesses, .name for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an e-mail address, .museum for museums, .aero for the aviation industry, .coop for business cooperatives such as credit unions and electric coops, and .pro for professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and physicians. As of March 2002, all of these domain name suffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.

Only the computer name is required in a URL. If the protocol is omitted, a browser assumes “http://,” and if the name of an item is omitted, the server chooses a page to send. Thus, the URL encarta.msn.com, which consists only of a computer name, is also valid.

Before it can obtain information, a browser must be given a URL. A user can enter the URL manually or click on a selectable link. In each case, once it has been given a URL, the browser uses the URL to obtain a new page, which it then displays for the user. The URL associated with a selectable link is not usually visible because the browser does not display the URL for the user. Instead, to indicate that an item is selectable, the browser changes the color of the item on the screen and keeps the URL associated with the link hidden. When a user clicks on an item that corresponds to a selectable link, the browser consults the hidden information to find the appropriate URL, which the browser then follows to the selected page. Because a link can point to any page in the Web, the links are known as hyperlinks. See also Hypermedia.

When a browser uses a URL to obtain a page, the information may be in one of many forms, including text, a graphical image, video, or audio. Some Web pages are known as active pages because the page contains a miniature computer program called a script or applet (a small application program). When a script or applet arrives, the browser runs the program. For example, a script can make images appear to move on the user's screen or can allow a user to interact with a mouse, keyboard, or microphone. Active pages allow users to play games on the Web, search databases, or perform virtual scientific experiments. Active pages are also used to generate moving advertisements, such as a banner that keeps changing or a logo that appears to rotate.

The codes that tell the browser on the client computer how to display a Web document correspond to a set of rules called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). An HTML document consists of text with special instructions called tags, which are inserted to tell the browser how to display the text. The HTML language specifies the exact rules for a document, including the meaning of each tag. Thus, a person who creates an HTML page is responsible for inserting tags that cause the browser to display the page in the desired form. Not all Web pages use HTML. Graphics images are usually encoded using the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) or Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) standards. Active pages are written in a computer programming language such as ECMA Script or Java.

IV

WHO USES THE WEB

Even though the World Wide Web is only one possible service that uses the Internet, surveys have shown that more than 80 percent of Internet traffic is for the Web. The percentage is likely to grow in the future.

The most remarkable aspect of the World Wide Web arises from its broad appeal. Users form a cross-section of society, including students preparing term papers, physicians researching the latest medical information, and college applicants investigating campuses or even filling out application and financial aid forms online. Other users include investors examining the trading history of a company's stock or evaluating data on various commodities and mutual funds. All the necessary information is available on the Web.

Travelers investigating a possible trip can take virtual tours, check airline schedules and fares, and even book a flight on the Web. Many destinations—including parks, cities, resorts, and hotels—have their own Web sites with guides and local maps. Major delivery companies also have Web sites from which customers can track shipments to determine the location of a package in transit or the time when it was delivered.

Government agencies have Web sites where they post regulations, procedures, newsletters, and tax forms. Many elected officials—including almost all members of the United States Congress—have Web sites, where they express their views, list their achievements, and invite input from the voters. The Web also contains directories of e-mail and postal mail addresses and phone numbers.

Many merchants now do business on the Web. Users can shop at the Web sites of major bookstores as well as clothing sellers and other retailers. Many major newspapers have special Web editions that are updated more frequently than the printed version. In some cases, a Web site will offer basic information to everyone, but provide additional information to users who buy a subscription. The major broadcast networks use the Web to provide supplementary materials for radio and television shows, especially documentaries. Electronic journals in almost every scholarly field are now on the Web. Most museums now offer Web users a virtual tour of their exhibits and holdings. Finally, many individuals have a Web site that describes their family, hobbies, and other personal information.

V

HISTORY

The World Wide Web was developed by British physicist and computer scientist Timothy Berners-Lee as a project within the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland. Berners-Lee combined several existing ideas into a single system to make it easier for physicists to use data on the Internet. Most important, he added multimedia—the ability to include graphics—to the hyperlink concept found in a previous Internet service known as gopher. Berners-Lee had begun working with hypertext in the early 1980s. An early prototype implementation of the Web became operational at CERN in 1989, and the idea quickly spread to universities in the rest of the world.

Groups at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign researched and extended Web technology. They developed the first browser that was used at many sites, named Mosaic, in 1993. To allow the Web to be accessed from a wide variety of computer systems, researchers built multiple versions of Mosaic. Each version was designed to be used with a specific operating system, the software that controls the computer. Within a year, computer programmer Marc Andreessen had formed a commercial company, Netscape Communications Corporation, to build and sell Web technologies.

VI

FUTURE TRENDS

The amount of information on the Web continues to grow rapidly, as does the number of users around the world and the amount of online commerce. For many businesses, the Web is replacing traditional catalog ordering. In addition, people continue to extend and improve Web technology. Several research efforts are underway to generate new methods that search the Web for information, new methods for restricting access to intellectual property, and new technologies that will permit live Webcasts similar to television broadcasts.

Although most Web pages still use the HTML language, extensions and alternative technologies have been proposed. The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is becoming popular for business-to-business communication. Unlike HTML, in which the meaning of all tags is pre-determined, XML allows companies that use it to define their own tags. For example, a publisher and a bookstore might choose to define their own tags for information about authors, titles, and publication dates for the information they exchange. Similarly, an automaker and a dealership might choose to define their own unique tags for models, body styles, and price. XML definitions are only meaningful to the parties involved. For example, the automaker's software will not understand a book publisher’s author tag, and the bookstore's software will not understand the automaker’s body style tag.

Other alternative forms are also emerging. The Wireless Markup Language (WML) is designed to be used with small wireless devices such as Web-enabled cell phones. Several scripting languages are available, including ECMA Script (which was originally called JavaScript) and Visual Basic. Scripting is gaining importance as more sites use animation.

Another Web technology expected to gain importance is known as a Content Distribution Network (CDN) or mirroring. A CDN consists of multiple sites around the world that all contain the same information. When a user requests a page, the CDN directs the request to the closest copy. From a user's viewpoint, a CDN results in a faster response. From a company's viewpoint, a CDN is necessary because no single Web site can handle simultaneous requests from several hundred million users. The largest Web sites already use CDN technology.

Higher-speed Internet transmission facilities, known as broadband, are also helping improve response times. Broadband technologies include Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), which works over telephone wiring, and cable modems, which work over cable TV wiring. Each technology allows data to flow from an Internet service provider to a user's computer hundreds of times faster than traditional dialup modems. Another, less popular option is satellite Internet access, in which a computer grabs an Internet signal from orbiting satellites via an outdoor dish.