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INTRODUCTION
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Algerian
War of Independence, liberation conflict of Algeria against France,
which took place over eight years between 1954 and 1962, culminating in the
independence of Algeria from French colonial rule in July 1962. It was the
longest and most bitter colonial war fought by a European power which, at its
height, raised passions that threatened the stability of France itself. The
fighting was characterized by the Algerian use of urban and rural guerrilla
warfare, coordinated by the Front de Libération Nationale (Algerian National
Liberation Front; FLN).
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BACKGROUND TO WAR
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At the end of World War
II, the V-E (Victory in Europe) Day celebrations of May 8, 1945, were marred in
Algeria by violent demonstrations in the town of Sétif and the first Algerian
attacks against European settlers (or colons), of whom around 100 died.
French retributions for this uprising, resulting in the deaths of several
thousand Algerians, radicalized the approach of many Algerian n
ationalists towards gaining independence from France. Attempts by Paris to implement more liberal reforms were thwarted by the colons’ resistance and by Algerian dissatisfaction.
The main Algerian political
parties under Messali Hadj and Ferhat Abbas had participated in French-organized
elections from the late 1940s. Pressures for more direct action, however, led
to the creation of a clandestine revolutionary group, the Organization Speciale
(OS), uncovered by the French in 1950. In March 1954, to plan for revolutionary
action, nine of the younger radical nationalists (later known as the historic
chiefs) formed the basic structures of what became the FLN.
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THE OUTBREAK OF WAR
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On November 1, 1954, FLN
committees coordinated bomb attacks and assaults throughout Algeria. Almost
immediately, Paris sent military reinforcements to track down suspects in rural
areas. Under FLN command Algeria was divided into military zones, or wilayat,
each headed by a colonel. These were Wilaya I: the Aurès Mountains in
northeastern Algeria; II: the city of Constantine and the northeastern
coastline; III: the Berber region of Kabylia; IV: the capital Algiers; and V:
the city of Oran and western Algeria.
The first problem the
FLN experienced in its expansion was a shortage of arms. Additionally, in the
harsh winter of 1954 to 1955, the leader of Wilaya II was killed and the Wilaya
IV commanders were imprisoned. In March 1956 another FLN colonel was killed by
a booby-trapped radio. During 1954 to 1956 the French strengthened security
forces throughout Algeria. Retaliations against Algerian villages were waged by
both French paratroop regiments and colons and were often indiscriminate. The
FLN in turn staged counterattacks, creating a climate of terror to pressure
Algerians into joining them. The French government, under intensified pressure
from colons, repeated assurances that Algeria would never be abandoned.
Nevertheless, a new French representative, Jacques Soustelle, was sent to
negotiate reforms with Algerian political moderates.
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1955: THE PHILIPPEVILLE MASSACRES
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Until the summer of 1955,
European civilians had not been direct victims of the guerrillas, the main
targets being communications networks, public buildings, and Algerian officials
working for the French. On August 20, 1955, 80 FLN guerrillas of Wilaya II descended
on a suburb of the town of Philippeville (now Skikda) and killed an estimated
123 people, including women and children.
The French responded to
the attack on a civilian population by tracking down and killing up to 12,000
Algerians in the Wilaya II region. The massacres polarized the European and
Algerian communities. Reformist Algerian politicians like Abbas, and Soustelle
himself, thenceforth renounced negotiations in favor of full confrontation.
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1956: THE SOUMMAM CONGRESS
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By 1956 the French military
effort had become more concentrated, following the French army’s withdrawal
from Indochina and the independence of Algeria’s neighbors Morocco and Tunisia
from France. The FLN, meanwhile, sought international support for its struggle,
using Moroccan and Tunisian territory from which to attack French positions.
The rapid expansion of
the military wing of the FLN made its coordination difficult. Disputes also
arose between the commanders in exile and new leaders, such as Ramdane Abane,
emerging from FLN ranks inside Algeria. On August 20, 1956, a secret congress
of 20 FLN leaders was convened in Soummam in Kabylia. This meeting restructured
the military forces as the National Liberation Army (ALN), and created the
National Council of the Algerian Revolution (CNRA) to represent broader FLN
membership. More controversially, it also accorded precedence to the “internal”
FLN leadership over the “externals.” In October 1956, however, five
leaders-in-exile—including Ahmed Ben Bella (later the first president of
Algeria)—were captured and imprisoned for the remainder of the war when the
French hijacked their airplane over northern Algeria.
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1956-1957: THE BATTLE OF ALGIERS
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In September 1956 the
ALN stepped up guerrilla warfare within Algiers itself. Over the following
months, Algerian civilians planted bombs in French cafés and public places,
which significantly increased French civilian casualties. The French
authorities arrested and tortured large numbers of guerrilla suspects, many of
whom died under interrogation.
Ultimately, French forces
tracked down most of the guerrillas, ending the so-called Battle of Algiers in
the summer of 1957. The losses suffered by the FLN severely weakened the
movement, but raised its international profile. The main internal FLN leaders
nevertheless fled to Tunis to avoid arrest.
By September 1957, French
construction of the Morice Line sealed Algeria’s borders with Tunisia with an
electric fence backed up by artillery, isolating FLN guerrillas from their
leaders. Before this, a CNRA meeting in Cairo not only returned overall command
to the external FLN leaders, but also reorganized the FLN’s central committee
to exclude individualistic leaders like Abane, who was later killed in Morocco
under mysterious circumstances.
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1958: DE GAULLE TAKES CONTROL
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The battles of 1958 shifted
to the Morice Line, while French reinforcements of 400,000 men gained the
military upper hand elsewhere. Politically, however, the cost of the war and
its excesses were losing popularity in France, where the Fourth Republic was in
permanent crisis.
In May 1958, French colons
began their own insurrection against weak French governments, creating a
Committee of Public Safety in Algiers, under a paratroop commander. In Paris,
General Charles de Gaulle was called to form a new government to save the
situation.
In June 1958 in Algiers,
de Gaulle reassured the colons with the ambiguous phrase, “Je vous ai compris”
(“I have understood you”). His September 1958 proposals for greater Algerian
integration into France failed to address the colons’ fears. In September 1958
the FLN created its own Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA),
with Ferhat Abbas as president. By 1959 de Gaulle realized the impossibility of
a military solution. He provoked colon anger by instead proposing a referendum
for the self-determination of Algerians.
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1960-1962: FROM POLITICAL CRISIS TO EVIAN ACCORDS
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With the tacit support
of some paratroop regiments, the colons attempted an uprising in Algiers in
January 1960. It failed when de Gaulle called the French army to order. Splits
also appeared again between FLN leaders. Some, like Abbas, were ready for the negotiations
offered by de Gaulle in June 1960. Unsuccessful talks took place in Paris,
followed by renewed attacks in Algiers which forced de Gaulle to state more
clearly in November 1960 his eventual intention to emancipate Algeria.
This proved too much for
several French generals. With hard-line colons, they formed the Secret Army
Organization (OAS) to mount a second rebellion in February 1961. This time, the
rebels took hold of Algiers and even threatened Paris. De Gaulle’s oratorical
skills once again quelled the dissidence, paving the way for a final political
solution.
From late 1961, despite
continuing divisions, the FLN participated in secret negotiations with the
French in Evian, France, which culminated in a cease-fire agreement in March
1962. The Evian Accords also provided for a referendum, held on July 1, 1962,
in which the majority of Algerians voted for independence. In the following
months French colons emigrated in large numbers, leaving Algeria under its
first independent president, Ahmed Ben Bella. On the Algerian side, the war had
cost nearly 500,000 lives from a population of less than 9 million.
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